Laying a Straw in Her Way
Tracing the Theology of Pentecostalism That Guided Women in Ministrys

By Susie Stanley

Enrichment Journal, spring 2006

Carrie Judd Montgomery, who was prominent in the healing movement at the turn of the 20th century, claimed both the holiness, and later, the Pentecostal labels. In defense of women's ministry, she quoted Acts 1:8: "But ye shall receive power, after that the Holy Ghost is come upon you: and ye shall be witnesses unto me."[1] She claimed the fulfillment of Jesus' words at Pentecost in Acts 2 and that the experience at Pentecost served as a model for contemporary ministry. The power of God given to the first disciples was also available for Christians in subsequent generations.[2] Montgomery's understanding of Pentecost as the basis for women in ministry exemplified the holiness position.

Theological Basis for Women Preachers

This article traces the theology that guided Pentecostalism in the expansion or restriction of the use of women's gifts in various avenues of ministry. Wesleyan Holiness doctrine provided a heavy imprint upon many Pentecostals. Pentecostals, such as Montgomery, who formerly had been involved in Wesleyan Holiness groups, believed that sanctification followed salvation. Sanctification - termed the baptism in the Holy Spirit - imparted purity and the power of the Holy Spirit. Wesleyan Holiness adherents who embraced Pentecostalism accepted the experiences of salvation and sanctification but maintained that speaking in tongues was evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit. In both cases, their understanding of the baptism in the Holy Spirit directly supported women in ministry. Acts 2 documented Jesus' followers being empowered by the Holy Spirit to spread the gospel throughout the Book of Acts. The Holy Spirit continued to impart gifts for ministry regardless of gender.

Many Pentecostals stressed that the doctrine of the baptism in the Holy Spirit supported women in ministry and believed no other argument was necessary. One woman "maintained that when a believer received the baptism with the Holy Ghost, she would come to see that Scripture did not prohibit women from preaching."[3]

Pentecostals focused on the fulfillment of Joel's prophecy that Peter incorporated into his sermon at Pentecost: "And it shall come to pass in the last days, saith God, I will pour out of my Spirit upon all flesh: and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy" (Acts 2:17).[4] The Apostolic Faith published by the Azusa Street Mission provides an early example of this emphasis in a 1908 article.[5]

Joel's prophecy also supported the conviction that the end times were near. The fulfillment of Joel's prophecy at Pentecost signified the former rain while the Pentecostal movement at the turn of the 20th century ushered in the latter rain - a synonym for end times. The belief that the end of time was close at hand called for increased evangelism, and women were encouraged to join that effort.

Pentecostals, for the most part, did not stress equality in ministry beyond the example of Pentecost. "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:28) appeared infrequently as the scriptural basis for Pentecostal women preachers. It is not surprising, though, that the women who founded two Pentecostal denominations utilized this passage.

Mary Magdalena Lewis Tate, founder of The Church of the Living God, the Pillar and Ground of the Truth, Inc., elaborated on the passage: "In reality, God does not see sex … He sees a spirit. A woman receives the same Spirit as a man, therefore, she can do any work in the church that a man can."

Ida Robinson, founder of The Mount Sinai United Holy Church of America, Inc., quoted Galatians 3:28 but also rooted equality in Christ's redemptive act that abolished the inequality resulting from the Fall and replaced it with the equality that man and woman experienced at creation.[6]

No doubt, William Seymour's Wesleyan Holiness background predisposed his acceptance of women preachers. It was not an issue due to his earlier experience with a woman holiness pastor, Lucy Farrow, in Houston, Texas.[7] Hundreds of women preached in Wesleyan Holiness denominations and served as role models for Pentecostals since few other denominations ordained women at the turn of the 20th century.

As illustrated by Seymour, experience as an affirmation of theology is an important means of support for women in ministry. Experience plays a vital role in Pentecostal theology. Scripture validates experience, as is illustrated by the frequent references to Pentecost. Women who had experienced the baptism in the Holy Spirit channeled that power into ministry. They also relied on God's call to confirm their ministry. Florence Crawford, founder of the Apostolic Faith denomination, is representative. Her son recalled: "One day as she sat meditating on her call, it seemed that a door opened right before her revealing the radiant light of Heaven. God spoke to her, saying: ‘I have set before thee an open door, and no man can shut it' " (Revelation 3:8).[8] Crawford's call to ministry was experiential and Scripture confirmed it.

Prophetic Authority

Scholars often draw on the sociotheological analysis of Charles Barfoot and Gerald Sheppard who used the categories of prophetic and priestly authority to explain leadership roles available to Pentecostal women. The spiritual authority described thus far illustrates prophetic authority where the Holy Spirit empowers and gifts ministers. The acceptance of prophetic authority resulted in women serving as evangelists and healers, as well as workers in missions devoted to social ministries. In many cases, women supervised these parachurch ministries.

Prophetic authority relies on a divine call rather than ecclesiastical sanction, which is the case with priestly authority. Priestly authority emerges with the development of denominations that establish organizational structures. Authority resides in the institutional hierarchy of the church.[9] Most Pentecostal groups restricted the leadership of women by prohibiting them from holding institutional positions.

The Azusa Street Mission valued prophetic authority at its inception. Prophetic authority flourished at missions, and Azusa Street welcomed women's giftedness for ministry. The evangelistic emphasis was also a key factor in the acceptance of women. Frank Bartleman celebrated the prophetic nature of the Azusa Street Mission: "We had no pope or hierarchy. … We had no priest class. … All were on a level. … We did not honor men for their advantage in means or education, but rather for their God-given ‘gifts.' … All seemed to recognize this and gave way. It might be a child, a woman, or a man. It made no difference."[10]

The initial minimal institutional structure at the Azusa Street Mission consisted of six women and six men whose primary responsibility was to license missionaries and evangelists. It was not long, however, before priestly authority emerged at Azusa Street. The Doctrines and Discipline of the Azusa Street Mission of Los Angeles, California stated that "all ordination must be done by men not women." A board of trustees, consisting of four men and Jennie Evans Seymour, William Seymour's wife, replaced the original leaders.[11] A 1915 revision of the Doctrines and Discipline ensured that Seymour's successors would be limited to "men of color."[12]

Priestly Authority

While prophetic authority opened doors for women, priestly authority slammed other doors shut. This continued to be the case as Pentecostal denominations evolved. Organizational meetings voted to prohibit women from holding full ordination rights and other leadership positions.
In 1909, the General Assembly of the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) concluded that the New Testament provided no basis for the ordination of women. The following year women were forbidden to hold positions in church government. A.J. Tomlinson, general overseer, defended women preachers in 1915 by referencing 1 Corinthians 11:5,13; Acts 2, and specific women as precedents. However, he claimed 1 Corinthians 14:34,35 and 1 Timothy 2:11,12 prohibited women from speaking, voting, or holding positions in church government.[13]

The Church of God continued to recognize prophetic authority by authorizing women as evangelists, but bowing to priestly authority, this position could not lead to ordination. Later, the office of evangelism was restricted to women and, ultimately, "lady evangelist" was the recognized office for licensed women. Their duties were limited until 1990 when the General Assembly decided to no longer use the title "lady evangelist" and substituted it with "licensed minister." Licensed ministers could pastor, administer the ordinances, and preside over marriages. In 2000, the title "ordained minister" was replaced with "licensed minister" and "ordained ministers" became "ordained bishops." The name change, however, did not open institutional leadership positions to women.[14]

Likewise, the first constitution of the Assemblies of God in 1914 recognized a woman's call to serve as an evangelist or missionary. While the Assemblies of God ordained women to these ministries, they restricted ordination to the office of elder or pastor to men. In 1935, however, the group granted women full clergy rights.[15]

Ordination is not always a valid measure of authority. The Church of God in Christ does not ordain women, yet they play an influential role in the denomination. Its Women's Department "is unique because of its matriarchal structure of women's leadership working parallel to and in partnership with the male episcopate of the church. The dual-sexed political structure of the church allows for a place for women's leadership and expertise within the denomination, despite prohibitions of women in pastoral roles." Further, "Church Mothers play a major role in appointments, ordination, and other matters regarding men, although this is not codified information, but practice."[16]

"Woman's Place" and Male Headship

The belief that a woman's place is in the home and that women should submit to men (headship) supports the idea that priestly authority belongs to men. Some Christians maintain that a woman's place is God-given. Invisible boundaries created by this perspective reinforce the conviction that women should not be leaders.

Advocates of headship believe that God has ordained a woman's submission to man, but they overlook verses such as Ephesians 5:21 and 1 Corinthians 7:3,4. This restriction was present as early as 1908 at Azusa Street: "No woman that has the Spirit of Jesus wants to usurp authority over the man"[17] By applying headship to the religious arena, women could not hold leadership positions over men. The Assemblies of God incorporated this view in its 1914 constitution: "Women are commanded to be in subjection and not to usurp authority over man (1 Timothy 2:11–15)." In 1935, the group moderated its position and granted women full clergy rights.[18]
Affiliation with fundamentalists and other evangelicals who promote the concept of woman's place and male headship has reinforced the male monopoly on leadership among Pentecostals.[19] Leaders in the charismatic movement also have reinforced headship with their emphasis on men covering the ministry of women. The belief in headship, however, is not universal among charismatics. Daisy Osborn and Freda Lindsay rejected headship and assumed leadership roles alongside their pastor husbands.[20]

Women such as Maria Woodworth-Etter and Kathryn Kuhlman circumvented male priestly authority by remaining independent of any denomination. Other women, including Bishops Tate and Robinson, founded their own denominations. Aimee Semple McPherson established the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel.

Throughout the years, priestly authority has increasingly held sway in Pentecostal churches, including those founded by women. Recently, several denominations have addressed the issue in an effort to open positions to women. The International Church of the Foursquare Gospel produced a position statement affirming women in all areas of leadership, yet, in practice, "the vast majority of the denomination's officers are male; all of the top positions are held by males and only a fraction of solo senior pastors are female [in 1994]."[21] Similarly, the Assemblies of God issued a position paper in 1990 explicitly rejecting headship in the church: "We do not find sufficient evidence in kephale to deny leadership roles to women. … We conclude that we cannot find convincing evidence that the ministry of women is restricted according to some sacred or immutable principle."[22] Yet, in 2004, the Assemblies of God reported that 4 percent of their senior or solo pastors were women. This does represent an improvement since the percentage of women who are becoming senior pastors is increasing.[23]

Hopeful Signs

Denominational statements, though, are not enough to challenge priestly authority. They are, however, a crucial starting point. Education is essential. Through education, the theological heritage can help dismantle the beams holding up the stained glass ceiling that has prevented women from pursuing their calling and using their gifts in all areas of church leadership.
The spring 2001 issue of Enrichment journal (Assemblies of God) addressed women's call to ministry. As an educational resource for pastors, materials such as this provide excellent tools for use in educating not only pastors but also people in the pews. Reflecting on the 1990 statement, one author declared: "There is a God-ordained equality of man and woman in His original creation. The New Testament affirms the equality of women in ministry. It also describes women as equal to men in their spiritual giftedness and identifies women's ministry roles and titles identical to men's, on all levels from that of disciple to, and including, that of apostle (Romans 16:7)."[24] This statement reflects a renewed emphasis on prophetic authority based on giftedness rather than sex.

Another article in the same issue of Enrichment restates the Holy Spirit's role in determining one's authority to minister: "The anointing of the Holy Spirit on a person's life and ministry is a supernatural indicator of a God-ordained call. Human credentialing, while important, is secondary to the awareness and evidence that, ‘the Spirit of the Lord is upon me.' "[25] In both cases, priestly authority is specifically challenged by prophetic authority, drawing on the theological legacy of the Pentecostal movement with its emphasis on the Holy Spirit.

Theological arguments based on the baptism in the Holy Spirit and the Spirit's endowment of power and gifts have been used since the inception of Pentecostalism. Invoking this theological heritage is one means of expanding prophetic authority. To claim that once priestly authority prevails women are excluded forever from denominational leadership fails to take into account the moving of the Holy Spirit.

Another means of promoting prophetic authority is to hold conferences for women in ministry. The executive leadership of the Assemblies of God sponsored the first national Conference for Women in Ministry in 2001. Its purpose was "to affirm, encourage, motivate, and strengthen women in their many facets of ministry in our Fellowship."[26] The Task Force for Women in Ministry is holding three conferences in 2006.

In 1994, an interdenominational group, the Association of Full Gospel Women Clergy, was founded. It sponsors conferences, has a website and issues a newsletter. The group actively promotes women using their gifts to minister in the church: "Our goals are to help women ministers develop their full potential in whatever areas of ministry they are called, to raise the consciousness of our churches around issues related to women in ministry, and to gain parity for women ministers with their male counterparts."[27]

The denominational statements, educational efforts, and organizations represent, to various degrees, a movement in Pentecostalism that is seeking to expand an understanding of prophetic authority by removing the line distinguishing between prophetic and priestly authority.
"We have no right to lay a straw in her way."[28] The author of this 1908 statement in The Apostolic Faith did not heed his own admonition when he advocated male authority, as noted above. Pentecostals, however, can follow his advice by using a sturdy, theological broom to remove the straw that has been strewn in women's way so the Holy Spirit's gifts can be utilized in all capacities in the church whether bestowed on men or women.

Susie Stanley, Ph.D., teaches historical theology at Messiah College, Grantham, Pennsylvania. She serves as executive director of Wesleyan/Holiness Women Clergy, Intl.(http://www.messiah.edu/whwc). She is also the author of the book Holy Boldness: Women Preachers Autobiographies and the Sanctified Self.

ENDNOTES

[1] Scriptures are King James Version.

[2] Daniel E. Albrecht, "The Life and Ministry of Carrie Judd Montgomery" (Ph.D. diss., Western Evangelical Seminary, 1984), 151,152. Due to time restraints, research for this article was drawn primarily from my personal library along with resources from the Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center. I am indebted to the authors of dissertations in this area, especially to David G. Roebuck who read a draft and offered helpful suggestions.

[3] Quoting from The Holiness Advocate in Randall J. Stephens, "The Fire Spreads: The Holiness-Pentecostal Press and the Origins of Southern Pentecostalism" (Presented at University of Florida: Society for Pentecostal Studies, 2001, photocopy), 407.

[4] David G. Roebuck, "Limiting Liberty: The Church of God and Women Ministers, 1886–1996" (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1997), 39,63.

[5] "Who May Prophesy?" The Apostolic Faith 1:12 (Los Angeles), January 1908, reprinted in The Azusa Street Papers (Foley, Ala.: Harvest Publications, n.d.), 59. Page referenced is in the reprint edition.

[6] Quoted in Estrelda Y. Alexander, "Gender and Leadership in the Theology and Practice of Three Pentecostal Women Pioneers" (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, 2002), 109,215.

[7] Estrelda Alexander, "The Women of Azusa Street" (Marquette University, Society for Pentecostal Studies, March 2004, photocopied), 2,3.

[8] An Historical Account of the Apostolic Faith, a Trinitarian-Fundamental Evangelistic Organization: Its Origin, Functions, Doctrinal Heritage and Departmental Activities of Evangelism (Portland, Ore: Apostolic Faith Publishing House, 1965), 63.

[9] Charles H. Barfoot and Gerald T. Sheppard, "Prophetic Vs. Priestly Religion: The Changing Role of Women Clergy in Classical Pentecostal Churches," Review of Religious Research 22, no. 1 (September 1980).

[10] Ibid., 8.

[11] Alexander, "Women of Azusa Street," 6.

[12] H.V. Synan, "William Joseph Seymour," in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, ed. Stanley M. Burgess and Gary B. McGee (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988), 781.

[13] Roebuck, 147,145,90–94.

[14] Ibid., 17,330,331; and David G. Roebuck correspondence with Susie Stanley, 26 July 2005.

[15] Deborah M. Gill, "The Contemporary State of Women in Ministry in the Assemblies of God," Pneuma 17 (Spring 1995): 33.

[16] Anthea E. Butler, "A Peculiar Synergy: Matriarchy and the Church of God in Christ" (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 2002), 2,4.

[17] "Who May Prophesy?" 59.

[18] Gill, "Contemporary State," 33.

[19] Margaret M. Poloma, The Assemblies of God at the Crossroads: Charisma and Institutional Dilemmas (Knoxville, Tenn.: The University of Tennessee Press, 1989), 119; Roebuck, 5; and Alexander, "Gender and Leadership," 49.

[20] Scott Billingsley, "New Prophets for Emerging American Subcultures: The Rise of Women and African American Evangelists in the Independent Charismatic Movement, 1950–2000," (Ph.D. diss., Auburn University, 2003), 68,79.

[21] Alexander, "Gender and Leadership," 167,68

[22] Deborah M. Gill and Barbara Cavaness, God's Women Then and Now (Springfield, Mo.: Grace and Truth, 2004), 229-230.

[23] Assemblies of God Ministers Report 2003. Provided by Deborah M. Gill.

[24] Deborah M. Gill, "Ripe for Decision: Women-In-Ministry Issues of Century 21," Enrichment 6, no. 2 (Spring 2001): 41.

[25] Beth Grant, "The Spirit of the Lord Is Upon Me: God's Validation for Ministry," Enrichment 6, no. 2 (Spring 2001): 32.

[26] "National Conference for Women in Ministry," Enrichment 6, no. 2 (Spring 2001), 7.

[27] "Introducing the Association of Full Gospel Women Clergy," organizational brochure, n.d.

[28] "Who May Prophesy?" 59.

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